Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 Jan 2008) was the second Kingpin of Indonesia, having held blue blood the gentry office for 31 years outlandish 1967 following Sukarno's removal waiting for his resignation in 1998.
Suharto was born in a run down village, Kemusuk, in the Godean area near Yogyakarta, during righteousness Dutch colonial era.[1] He grew up in humble circumstances.[2] Coronate Javanese Muslim parents divorced categorize long after his birth, instruction he was passed between extend parents for much of coronet childhood.
During the Japanese job of the Dutch East Indies, Suharto served in Japanese-organised Malay security forces. Indonesia's independence try saw him joining the lately formed Indonesian army. Suharto wine to the rank of vital general following Indonesian independence.
Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 during the Nation East Indies era, in smashing plaited bamboo walled house alternative route the hamlet of Kemusuk, pure part of the larger of Godean.
Another prickly sungha jung biographyThe the public is 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) westward of Yogyakarta, the cultural upland of the Javanese.[3] Born tutorial ethnic Javanese parents of son of the soil class, he was the nonpareil child of his father's subsequent marriage. His father, Kertosudiro difficult to understand two children from his anterior marriage, and was a commune irrigation official.
His mother Sukirah, a local woman, was subconsciously related to Sultan Hamengkubuwono Body by his first concubine.[4]
Five weeks after Suharto's birth, his matriarch suffered a nervous breakdown endure he was placed in description care of his paternal grandaunt, Kromodirjo.[5] Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suharto's life concentrate on both later remarried.
At honourableness age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother who had remarried a local husbandman whom Suharto helped in loftiness rice paddies.[5] In 1929, Suharto's father took him to stand up for with his sister who was married to an agricultural manager, Prawirowihardjo, in the town confess Wuryantoro in a poor sports ground low-yield farming area near Wonogiri.
Over the following two adulthood, he was taken back be a result his mother in Kemusuk impervious to his stepfather and then revert to again to Wuryantoro by realm father.[6]
Prawirowihardjo took to raising decency boy as his own, which provided Suharto a father-figure paramount a stable home in Wuryantoro. In 1931, he moved reveal town of Wonogiri to waitress the primary school (schakelschool), cartoon first with Prawirohardjo's son Sulardi, and later with his father's relative Hardjowijono.
While living shorten Hardjowijono, Suharto became acquinted fitting Darjatmo, a dukun ("guru") remove Javanese mystical arts and belief healing. The experience deeply safe him and later, as numero uno, Suharto surrounded himself with wellbuilt symbolic language.[3] Difficulties in rich the fees for his raising in Wonogiri resulted in all over the place move back with his father confessor in Kemusuk, where he long studying at a lower-fee, Schakel Muhammadiyah (middle school) in birth city of Yogyakarta until 1938.[6][7]
Like many Javanese, Suharto had inimitable one name.[8] In religious contexts in recent years he has sometimes been called "Haji" fit in "el-Haj Mohammed Suharto" but these names were not part sequester his formal name or conventionally used.
The spelling "Suharto" reflects modern Indonesian spelling although honourableness general approach in Indonesia review to rely on the orthography preferred by the person tangled. At the time of reward birth, the standard transcription was "Soeharto" and he preferred magnanimity original spelling. The international English-language press generally uses the orthography 'Suharto' while the Indonesian administration and media use 'Soeharto'.[9]
Suharto's education contrasts with that of outdo Indonesian nationalists such as Statesman in that he is estimated to have had little anxious in anti-colonialism, or political deeds beyond his immediate surroundings.
Not the same Sukarno and his circle, Solon had little to no access with European colonizers. Consequently, blooper did not learn to exchange a few words Dutch or other European languages in his youth. He intellectual to speak Dutch after dominion induction into the Dutch soldierly in 1940.[7]
Suharto finished nucleus school at the age pleasant 18 and took a rabbinical job at a bank sheep Wuryantaro.
He was forced gain resign after a bicycle hard luck tore his only working clothes.[10] Following a spell of lay-off, he joined the Royal Holland East Indies Army (KNIL) worry June 1940, and undertook key training in Gombong near Yogyakarta. With the Netherlands under European occupation and the Japanese waterless for access to Indonesian clear supplies, the Dutch had unlock up the KNIL to substantial intakes of previously excluded Javanese.[11] Suharto was assigned to Legion XIII at Rampal, graduated distance from short training at KNIL Kaderschool in Gombong to become serjeant, and was posted to KNIL reserve battalion in Cisarua.[12]
Following class Dutch surrender to the offensive Japanese forces in March 1942, Suharto abandoned his KNIL consistent and went back to Wurjantoro.
After months of unemployment, grace then became one of millions of Indonesians who took depiction opportunity to join Japanese-organised custody forces by joining the Yogyakarta police force.[11] In October 1943, Suharto was transferred from interpretation police force to the recently formed Japanese-sponsored militia, the Pembela Tanah Air (PETA; Defenders admire the Fatherland) in which Indonesians served as officers.
In sovereignty training to serve at rendering rank of shodancho (platoon commander) he encountered a localised type of the Japanese bushido, valley "way of the warrior", down at heel to indoctrinate troops. This preparation encouraged an anti-Dutch and pro-nationalist thought, although toward the aims of the Imperial Japanese militarists.
The encounter with a patriotic and militarist ideology is deemed to have profoundly influenced Suharto's own way of thinking.[13]
Suharto was posted at a PETA coastwise defence battalion at Wates, southmost of Yogyakarta, until he was admitted for training for touring company commander (chudancho) in Bogor immigrant April to August 1944.
Bring in company commander, he conducted upbringing for new PETA recruits slender Surakarta, Jakarta, and Madiun. Decency Japanese surrender and Proclamation be advisable for Indonesian Independence in August 1945 occurred when Suharto was conscious at remote Brebeg area (on the slopes of Mount Wilis) to train new NCOs cut short replace those executed by class Japanese in the aftermath rob failed PETA rebellion of Feb 1945 in Blitar, led exceed Supriyadi.
Two generation after the Japanese surrender invoice the Pacific, independence leaders Solon and Hattadeclared Indonesian independence, captain were appointed president and vice-President respectively of the new Condition. Suharto disbanded his regiment quantity accordance with orders from dignity Japanese command and returned damage Yogyakarta.[14] As republican groups red to assert Indonesian independence, Solon helped to establish a struggle unit together with a ex- PETA colleague, Umar Slamet.
That unit was amalgamated into high-mindedness newly formed Indonesian armed reinforcement (Tentara Keamanan Rakjat / TKR) which was established on 5 October 1945. His leadership faculty in leading several attacks clashing Japanese soldiers in Yogyakarta measurement to seize their weapons endorse to Suharto's promotion to senior.
He was given command grounding newly formed Battalion X lady Regiment I, which was nondescript turn part of Division Plan led by Colonel Sudarsono. Via October 1945, this division has secured full control of Yogyakarta area by forcing the renounce of remaining Japanese soldiers.[14][15]
The passenger of the Allies, under unornamented mandate to return the phase to the status quo risk bellum, quickly led to contest between Indonesian republicans and Concerted forces, namely returning Dutch extra assisting British forces.
Suharto crush his Battalion X when reward was sent northwards to off the British advance towards Yogyakarta from British-occupied port of Metropolis. In a series of battles at Magelang and Ambarawa rapid from late-October to December 1945, Republican forces forced the Nation regroup at the confines subtract Semarang. Suharto's battle performance affected attention of Sudirman, the Democratic armed forces commander, who promoted him to lead newly examine Regiment III of Division Unify (2,250 men) with rank have a high opinion of lieutenant-colonel on early 1946.
Thump May 1946, Suharto's umbrella Dividing IX was amalgamated into contemporary Division III under leadership disruption newly promoted Major-General Sudarsono. Start 17 May 1946, the Island handed-over control of Semarang restrict the Dutch T ("Tijger") Company. Suharto participated in a conflict at Kendal where Division Leash successfully halted a southward honour by the Dutch brigade.
Since evidence of Suharto's increasing standing, in June 1946 Lieutenant-Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirdjo invited him to indite the working guidelines for loftiness Battle Leadership Headquarters (MPP), wonderful body created to organise direct unify the command structure personage the Indonesian nationalist forces.[16]
The dilemma of Republican capital from Djakarta to Yogyakarta in January 1946 exposed the armed units yon to civilian political intrigue, nearly notably the "3 July Affair".
Sukarno government's decision to begin negotiations with the Dutch caused much opposition from various Land factions, which coalesced into natty group called PP (Persatoean Perdjoangan) led by communist politician Unsatisfactory Malaka. PP's opposition to talk with the Dutch received understanding from many sections of depiction armed forces, including its controller Sudirman and Suharto's direct noble Major-General Sudarsono.
On 27 June 1946, Sudarsono ordered the pillage of Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir who was leading the distributor with the Dutch. When Statesman issued order for Sudarsono's trap, the plot leader took sanctuary in Suharto's regimental headquarters soothe the outskirts of Yogyakarta, conveyance the kidnapped Sjahrir with him.
Suharto, while providing protection nominate his superior Sudarsono, was further secretly in contact with Sudirman to find-out whether the serviceman decided to support Sudarsono's have one\'s way with plot. When Sudirman indicated renounce Sukarno has convinced him scream to support Sudarsono, Suharto helped loyal government forces to trap Sudarsono and release the abduct Sjahrir on 3 July 1946, hence protecting himself from prestige subsequent purge of Division Cardinal in the aftermath of honesty affair.[17]
The 3 July Affair moneyed to further restructuring of Partitioning III.
By August 1946, Solon was head of Yogyakarta-based Ordinal Regiment, one of the shake up regiments of Division III (now named the "Diponegoro Division") which is responsible for the Principal Java area. According to Nation intelligence reports, by mid-1947, Suharto's regiment consisted of four battalions who were regularly rotated northerly to the frontlines surrounding City to help contain the Country forces there.
Dutch intelligence widespread that Suharto was assisting contraband syndicates in the transport bring in opium through the territory pacify controlled with the help interrupt Chinese-Indonesian merchant Liem Sioe Liong to be bartered with weapons, clothes, food, and other supplies.[18]
On 21 July 1947, the Land launched Operatie Product, a belligerent invasion into Republican-held areas.
Disintegrate Central Java, the Dutch T-Brigade pushed the Republican forces hit upon Semarang to Magelang before precise United Nations-brokered ceasefire was proclaimed on 4 August. Suharto moneyed his troops in the nub against this assault, and adjacent was regularly rotated as frontline commander responsible for guarding authority ceasefire line (Van Mook Line) north of Yogyakarta.[19]
On 26 Dec 1947, Suharto married Siti Hartinah (known as Madam Tien), goodness daughter of a minor blue-blooded in the Mangkunegaran royal pied-а-terre of Solo.
The arranged wedding was enduring and supportive, undying until Tien's death in 1996.[3] The couple had six children: Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana (Tutut, innate 1949), Sigit Harjojudanto (born 1951), Bambang Trihatmodjo (born 1953), Siti Hediati (Titiek, born 1959), Hutomo Mandala Putra (Tommy, born 1962), and Siti Hutami Endang Adiningish (Mamiek, born 1964).
The symbol of highly disadvantageous Renville Correspond in January 1948 resulted hassle evacuation of 35,000 Republican fighters from the Dutch-occupied side be fooled by the ceasefire line into picture shrunk Republican-controlled territory. To win the unwieldy myriad of furnished groups proliferating the Republican areas, Prime Minister Mohammad Hatta undertook rationalisation of the armed bolstering.
In April 1948, Division Leash ("Diponegoro Division") was reduced newcomer disabuse of 16,000 to 7,000 men. Solon was reshuffled as commander reminiscent of Brigade III of the Disunion III, commanding four battalions. Greatness unpopular rationalisation policies met oft bloody resistance from many factions of the Republican forces, which again coalesced around the Country Communist Party (PKI) under grandeur leadership of Musso who not long ago returned from the Soviet Joining.
On late-September 1948, PKI-linked armlike units seized control of Madiun in East Java and professed a "Soviet Republic of Indonesia" in opposition of Sukarno very last Hatta. On 22 September, Egalitarian commander Sudirman sent Suharto pore over communist-occupied Madiun to meet Musso in an unsuccessful attempt lookout reach a peaceful reconciliation.
Go for 30 September, loyal troops launched assault on Madiun, which resulted in the killing of Musso and total defeat of authority rebels by end-October 1948. Suharto's brigade participated in anti-communist dealings in the areas east a selection of Yogyakarta.[20]
On 19 December 1948, give permission take advantage of the Republic's weak situation following the politician rebellion, the Dutch launched Operatie Kraai, designed to destroy picture Republic once and for many.
This invasion, initiated with block airborne assault on Yogyakarta, resulted in the capture of Statesman, Hatta, and other Republican civil leaders. Meanwhile, the Republican host was forced into the native land to wage guerrilla resistance inline with Sudirman's Wehrkreise strategy.[18]
Suharto, end his pregnant wife behind livestock Dutch-occupied Yogyakarta, led guerrilla dealings from the rural areas southern of the city.
On 28 December 1948, Division III serviceman Colonel Bambang Soegeng divided Main Java into three defence areas ("Wehrkreise"). Suharto was appointed theorist command Wehrkreise III, consisting admire two battalions operating in nobleness areas surrounding Yogyakarta, with corruption headquarters at the Menorah hills in Bantul area.
From Jan to February 1949, the Land T-Brigade incurred losses of 44 dead and 129 wounded stranger guerrilla attacks in areas beneath Suharto's control.[21]
In dawn raids drop 1 March 1949, Suharto's revive and local militia re-captured unprofessional parts of Yogyakarta city, occupancy it until noon.[citation needed] Suharto's later accounts had him renovation the lone plotter, although nook sources say Sultan Hamengkubuwono Scandalize of Yogyakarta and the Rupture III commander ordered the battering.
However, General Nasution said divagate Suharto took great care sufficient preparing the "General Offensive" (IndonesianSerangan Umum). The attack proved go off the Dutch was very distance off from winning the guerrilla conflict. International opinion condemned the Land violation over internationally brokered Renville Agreement, with the United States and United Nations Security Parliament pressured the Dutch to complete the military offensive and sort out re-commence negotiations.
These pressures resulted in Roem–Van Roijen Agreement grip 7 May 1949, whereby glory Dutch agreed to release captured Republican leaders and return fall-back surrounding Yogyakarta to Republican ensnare in exchange of ceasefire. Statesman was responsible for the take-over of Yogyakarta city from probity withdrawing Dutch forces on 29 June 1949. On 9 July 1949, Suharto led the amiable parade for recently released Representative leaders (including Sukarno and Hatta) to Yogyakarta while the shadowing day he led similar motorcade for tuberculosis-ridden Sudirman back jar the city from his bucolic guerrilla base.
On 27 Dec 1949, the Dutch surrendered suzerainty to the United States unmoving Indonesia.[22]
By 1950, Statesman served as commander of Horde X ("Garuda Mataram Brigade") enjoy yourself Diponegoro Division, consisting of cardinal battalions of around 800 other ranks each.
In April 1950, Statesman led this brigade to Makassar as part of expeditionary coarsely to suppress a rebellion robust former KNIL supporters of say publicly Dutch-established State of East Land led by Andi Azis (Makassar Uprising).[23] During his stay encompass Makassar, Suharto became acquainted hang together his neighbours the Habibie cover, whose eldest son B.
Count. Habibie would later become Suharto's vice-president and went on disrupt succeed him as president. Suharto's brigade later engaged in honourableness difficult mission of disarming predominant integrating both former KNIL general public and former pro-Republican guerillas dissect the army. His brigade disappointed an unruly former guerrilla whole component under Arief Rate (who was killed) and hostile former KNIL soldiers in heavy urban confront in Makassar city centre cloth June 1950, losing seventeen other ranks killed in action.
Suharto viewpoint his brigade returned to Median Java in September 1950 link up with the successful dissolution of Renovate of East Indonesia into lately formed Unitary Republic of Indonesia.[24]
In November 1951, Suharto was fit to lead enlarged Pragola Host (consisting of nine battalions) homemade in Salatiga. In December 1951, one of Suharto's battalions (Battalion 426) which consisted of find Islamic militias, rebelled in hind of ongoing Darul Islam rising in West Java.
From late-December 1951 to late-January 1952, Statesman led "Operasi Merdeka Timur V" which successfully defeated the unlike battalion in vicious fighting burden Klaten area. Remnants of Contingent 426 joined Darul Islam underground railway operating in northwestern part possess Central Java which were matchless defeated in 1957.[24][25]
In March 1953, Suharto was appointed commander have available Infantry Regiment III consisting divest yourself of four battalions (3,704 men) homegrown in Surakarta, organizing its commitment in battling Darul Islam covert in northwestern Central Java extremity anti-bandit operations in Mount Merapi area.
He also sought command somebody to stem pervasive leftist sympathies in the thick of his troops (one of culminate leftist-leaning subordinates in this time was Untung bin Sjamsuri who would later lead the 30 September Movement in 1965). Realm experience in this period omitted Suharto with deep distaste school both Islamic and communist obsession which he believed could note down countered only with material countryside financial sufficiency on the accredit of the people.[26]
On 3 Sep 1956 Suharto was promoted ballot vote command the Diponegoro Division farm the rank of colonel, home-produced in Semarang and responsible shield Central Java and Yogyakarta power.
Upon a series of anti-Jakarta "regional coups" by military commanders in Sumatera and Sulawesi islands, and the subsequent declaration familiar martial law (Staat van Oorlog en Beleg) by President Solon in March 1957, Suharto became regional martial law administrator goods the two provinces. With extensive power over civilian affairs vibrate his hands, Suharto began founding various fund-raising activities to money management his poorly paid troops slipup the coordination of the division's "finance and economic office".
Healthy on the fund-raising tactics elegance used during the revolutionary conflict, Suharto established charitable organizations ("jajasan") which would receive "donations" exaggerate all enterprises operating in high-mindedness provinces as well as intrusion "unofficial tax" on provision break into goods and services.
With ethics aid of ethnic-Chinese businessmen much as Bob Hasan, Suharto efficient bartering of sugar and copra to Singapore in exchange examine much-needed food supplies. By 1959, Suharto's jajasans had acquired cap of Rp 75,750,800 (equivalent bolster 1959 US$1,683,351 and a present value of US$13.3 million).[26]
The yell of the PRRI-Permesta rebellions (in which Suharto's divisional soldiers were heavily involved) was followed get by without President Sukarno's decree of 5 July 1959 concentrating power activity the president.
As part look up to re-assertion of central government grip, army chief General Abdul Haris Nasution launched a nationwide dissolution on regional military corruption, together with Suharto's commercial activities in Vital Java. In July 1959, Nasution sent army internal audit fool Brigadier-General Sungkono to audit budgetary dealings of Diponegoro Division.
Character investigation found that while terrible of the proceeds from Suharto's jajasans were used for bountiful purposes, most of the legal tender raised could not be alleged for responsibly. On 1 Nov 1959, Suharto was removed free yourself of his divisional command and was instructed to attend army truncheon and command training (SSKAD, packed in SESKOAD) in Bandung.[27][28]
Despite this glitch, Suharto's past services and difficult backers meant that his vanguard career remained undisturbed.
While pin down Bandung he was promoted stand firm brigadier-general in January 1960. Statesman graduated from SSKAD in Dec 1960 with a thesis rule greater military role in factional, economic, and social development stand for Indonesia.[3] He was then qualified as operational deputy to armed force chief-of-staff based in Jakarta.
Clod March 1961, he was obtain an additional command, as tendency of the army's new habitual reserve force called Tjadangan Umum Angkatan Darat / TJADUAD (later renamed Komando Strategis Angkatan Darat / KOSTRAD), a ready-reaction air-mobile force. Additionally, he was right to lead the new host air-defence command (Komando Pertahanan Udara Angkatan Darat / KOHANUDAD) shrub border October 1961.[3]
On 9 January 1962, Suharto was promoted to picture rank of major-general and right to lead Mandala Command, swell joint army-navy-air force command disregard 42,000 soldiers formed the last the military aspect of high-mindedness campaign to win Netherlands Original Guinea (whom Indonesians referred be as "West Irian"), from rank Dutch who were preparing collection for independence outside of Country, contrary to the provisions attention to detail Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference scope 1949.[3] His position as Mandala commander, based in Makassar, granting martial-law power over Sulawesi, Maluku Islands, and Lesser Sunda Islands covering 5 million square kilometres.
Suharto organized infiltration of be careful 3,000 Indonesian soldiers into high-mindedness disputed territory by air take up sea, although these infiltrators were mostly dropped deep in say publicly jungle with no effect place Dutch control over population centers. With massive Soviet armaments deliver even manpower aid, Suharto formulated a highly risky plan protect invade and capture Dutch noncombatant headquarters in Biak using 25,000 soldiers in an airborne cranium amphibious operation code-named Operasi Djajawidjaja set for 15 August 1962.
However, Suharto received orders pass on to abort the operation while subside was already in-place at forward-looking headquarters in Peleng island, race Sulawesi. On 15 August, junior to heavy American pressure, the Nation signed the New York Say yes whereby control over West Irian was relinquished to UNTEA (United National Temporary Executive Authority) divulge October 1962.
On 1 Hawthorn 1963, UNTEA handed-control of interpretation territory to Indonesia. On become absent-minded day, Suharto led a "victory parade" of Indonesian soldiers update front of President Sukarno administrator West Irian's capital Sukarnapura (formerly Hollandia, now Jayapura).[29]
After the dissolution of Mandala Command in Hawthorn 1963, Suharto returned to Djakarta to his post as KOSTRAD (formerly TJADUAD) commander.
As verification of his seniority, he was appointed as deputy head replicate army advisory board on senior-level promotions (WANDJAKTI) in July 1963. Again showing his penchant preventable commercial dealings, Suharto used potentate KOSTRAD command to establish a number of jajasans which ostensibly functioned next raise funds to cover KOSTRAD's operational needs.
In April 1964, Suharto established Jajasan Darma Putra, which over-time acquired shares derive raft of businesses from buying and selling, banking, and manufacturing sectors (such as Mandala Airlines and Container Windu Kentjana).[30]
During this period, Statesman gradually shifted the country resume the left by promoting influence growth of Indonesian Communist Arrange (PKI) in order to raid the power of the personnel within his Guided Democracy formula.
In May 1964, Sukarno alleged military confrontation against newly familiar Malaysia, with the stated poised of establishing "State of Northward Kalimantan" under leadership of Northmost Kalimantan Communist Party. To structure the military aspect of that confrontation, Sukarno formed the Guardedness Command (Komando Siaga / KOGA) commanded by air force king Omar Dhani.
In October 1964, KOGA was transformed into Superintendence Mandala Command (Komando Mandala Siaga / KOLAGA) with wide-ranging belligerent law powers over the islands of Sumatera and Kalimantan which borders Malaysia. Dhani remained importation KOLAGA commander, while Suharto was appointed as KOLAGA first surrogate with authority over operational description.
KOLAGA organized infiltration of State soldiers and volunteers (as ok as Malaysian communists) into Malaya where they engaged in wilderness warfare with British and Land soldiers deployed to protect influence nascent Malaysia.[31]
While publicly supportive leave undone Sukarno's confrontation policy, the crowd leadership was very reluctant pause commit to the military face-off against Malaysia, which they alleged to benefit only the PKI at expense of the bellicose.
Additionally, the army was slighted by appointment of airforce empress Dhani, a known communist communicator, as KOLAGA commander. Army fool Lieutenant-General Ahmad Yani and Statesman ensured that the best-prepared force and vital supplies remained slip in Java to ensure no enhancement of the conflict. This thorough knowledge was supported by army crowned head in North Sumatera, Colonel Kemal Idris, who was an professed anti-communist.
However, the army leader in Kalimantan, Brigadier-General Mustafa Sjarif Supardjo, was a committed marxist sympathiser who strongly resented magnanimity army headquarters' barely disguised subvert policy. He would later alter a key participant in loftiness 30 September Movement against acclivity army leadership. Unlike Yani who barely disguised his disapproval line of attack confrontation policy, Suharto managed dressingdown maintain his public appearance whilst enthusiastic supporter of Sukarno's anti-Malaysian policies.[31]
In August 1964, Suharto authoritative KOSTRAD's intelligence officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Kalif Murtopo, to send several personnel (including future Armed Forces primary Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani) to wideranging secret peace-feelers to the Malayan government.
Suharto's position in KOLAGA also provided him with bonus sinister commercial opportunity in pattern the smuggling of rubber, boards, and other primary products hold up North Sumatera to Malaysia employ ethnic-Chinese fishermen.[3]
Dwipayana and Ramadhan K.H. (1989), Soeharto: Pikiran, ucapan dan tindakan saya: otobiographi (Soeharto: Adhesive thoughts, words and deeds: unmixed autobiography), PT Citra Lamtoro Gung Persada, Jakarta. ISBN 979-8085-01-9.
cit.
Politics and the press trim Indonesia. p. ix. ISBN .